This page provides definitions for common public health assessment and epidemiology
concepts. It also serves as an index to additional resources on the NM-IBIS system.
10 Essential Public Health Services
The 10 Essential Public Health Services
were developed in 1994 by the U.S. Public Health Service and include services such
as "Monitor health status," "Diagnose and investigate health problems," and
"Mobilize community partnerships."
For more
information, see CDC's
National
Public Health Performance Standards Program Website.
A.S.T.H.O.
The Association of State and Territorial Health Officers (ASTHO) is the
national nonprofit organization representing public health agencies in the United
States, the U.S. Territories, and the District of Columbia. ASTHO's voting membership
includes the chief health officials for each U.S. state and territory. ASTHO members
formulate and influence sound public health policy and promote excellence in state-based
public health practice.
ASTHO Website. See also
N.A.C.C.H.O..
Advocacy
Advocacy refers to organized efforts to change or
influence policies.
See also
Policy.
Age-adjusted Rate
Age-specific Birth Rate
The age-specific birth rate is the number of live births in a specific age
group of women per 1,000 women in that age group in the population.
The teen birth rate is considered an age-specific birth rate.
Age-specific Birth Rates for New Mexico
can be calculated using the
Birth Data Custom Query section of the NM-IBIS Website. See also
Crude Birth Rate.
Age-specific Rate
An age-specific rate is a
rate in which both the numerator (number of events)
and denominator (number in population at risk) are limited to a specific age group.
It is calculated by dividing the total number of health events for the specific age group of
interest by the total population in that age group.
[more on age-specific rates...]
Artifact
An artifact is any representation in data, such as choice of methodology, or observational or data entry errors, that would
cause a datum to misrepresent its true value.
Assessment
Assessment is the regular and systematic
collection, assembly, analysis, and dissemination of information about the
health of a community. Public health assessment, policy development and
assurance of access to quality health care are considered the three core functions of
government in public health. (Institute of Medicine (1988) The Future of Public Health,
National Academies Press.)
See also
Community Health Assessment.
Attributable Fraction
The theoretical proportion of the rate or number of cases of an adverse
health outcome that can be attributed to a given risk factor.
Bridged-Race
Data collected using the 1997 OMB standard for collection of race and ethnicity information are
not directly comparable to those that were collected using the 1977 standard. To permit trend
analysis, a methodology was developed to "bridge" population estimates that were collected using
the 1997 standard back to the categories used in the 1977 standard.
[more on race and ethnicity measurement...] C.S.T.E.
CSTE stands for "Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists."
CSTE is a professional organization for public health epidemiologists.
Visit the CSTE Website
for more information.
Cause / Cause-and-Effect
There is philosophical debate about
the meaning of 'cause,' but for a working definition in epidemiology, we can
use a definition from Rothman and Greenland,
Causation and Causal Inference in Epidemiology, "...a cause of a specific disease
event [is] an antecedent event, condition, or characteristic that was necessary
for the occurrence of the disease at the moment it occurred, given that other
conditions are fixed."
Choropleth Map
Choropleth maps display data for predefined geographic areas. The areas on a
choropleth map are shaded or patterned to reflect values of a variable such
as population density or birth rate.
[more on NM-IBIS Choropleth Maps...]
Coefficient of Variation (CV)
Community Action Teams
Community action teams are generally task forces or
committees established to plan and implement activities that address a particular health priority.
They may include health council members as well as other community stakeholders.
Community Health Assessment
Community health assessment is a process of identifying and
quantifying the needs, conditions, and resources of communities with respect to health and health care.
Community health assessment processes include gathering secondary or published data and primary data
(locally-generated data through surveys, focus groups, interviews, or other means); analyzing and
interpreting the data; and establishing priorities for community health improvement.
See also
Assessment.
Community Health Status Indicators
Having a common set of core health status measures can help communities conduct health
assessments and identify priority health issues. The 46 Community Health Status Indicators (CHSIs)
provide consistent and comparable health assessment information for New Mexico Department of Health
and our community partners to work collaboratively to improve community health.
[more on New Mexico CHSIs...]
Community Mapping
Community mapping consists of the visual representation of
data by geography or location, in order to link information to place. Mapping is often used to identify
and locate community assets or services in relation to the populations they serve, in order to maximize
access throughout a given geographic area (neighborhood, city, region, state, or nation). Other uses include
identifying liquor store densities to neighborhood grocery stores and environments that encourage physical
activity. Mapping provides tools for identifying, analyzing, and communicating visually the patterns that
affect community health.
Comparability Ratio
A comparability ratio measures the level of agreement between ICD-9 and ICD-10 classification
systems. NCHS calculated comparability ratios for 113 selected causes of death by using a double-coding
exercise using 1996 death data. NCHS coded 1.8 million death certifications from 1996 first using
ICD-9 and then using ICD-10. Based on that double-coding, NCHS has produced the set of Comparability
Ratios for 113 Selected Causes of Death. Each ratio is an expression of the results of the comparison
as a ratio of death for a cause of death by the later revision divided by the number of cause of death
coded and classified by the earlier revision. To accurately portray trends that include both years
1980-1998 and 1999 on, the death counts or rates for the earlier years must be "comparability modified."
This is accomplished by multiplying the earlier death count (or rate) by the comparability ratio for
that cause of death. Use comparability-adjusted mortality counts and rates only when you need to display
years 1998 and earlier together with years 1999 and later.
[Click here for comparability ratios for NCHS leading causes.]
Confidence Interval
The confidence interval may be thought of as the range of probable true values for a
statistic. In general, as a population or sample size increases,
the confidence interval gets smaller. Estimates with smaller confidence intervals are referred
to as more "precise." Less precise estimates, such as those calculated from
small numbers, tend to have wide confidence intervals.
Typically, the 95% confidence interval (calculated as 1.96 times the standard error of a statistic)
indicates the range of values within which the statistic would fall 95% of the time if
the researcher were to calculate the statistic (e.g., a percentage or rate) from an infinite
number of samples of the same size drawn from the same base population.
[more on confidence intervals...]
Confounding Variable
The confounding variable is a variable that is related to, and may obscure one's view of, the
variable of interest. For instance, when examining death rates across populations, the population's
age distribution can be a confounding variable because higher death rates will be found in populations
with a greater proportion of persons in older age groups. In such a case, one could use an
age-adjusted rate to compare the populations.
Count
A count is simply the number of health events, such as a death or a reported disease incident, that
occurred within a specified time period.
[more on health event counts...]
Crude Birth Rate
The crude birth rate is the number of live births per 1,000
persons (males and females) in the population.
See also
Age-specific Birth Rate.
Crude Rates
D.A.L.Y.
DALY stands for "Disability Adjusted Life Years," and is a summary
measure of the impact of premature death and disability on the length and quality of life. It is
defined by the
World Health Organization as, "The sum of years of potential
life lost due to premature mortality and the years of productive life lost
due to disability."
See also
Y.P.L.L.,
Q.A.L.Y.
Descriptive Epidemiology
The study of the amount and
distribution of a disease in a specified population by person, place,
and time.
Denominator
The denominator is the divisor in division (for instance, where 12/3=4,
the number 3 is known as the divisor, 12 is the dividend and 4 is the quotient). In public health, the denominator
for a disease rate is the number of persons (or person-years) at risk, or the estimated population. For instance,
for 23 deaths in a population of 15,000, the death rate would be 23/15,000, or 0.001533, or 153.3 per 100,000 population.
In that example, 15,000 is referred to as the denominator.
NMDOH standard population data files,
NMDOH Principles for Updating Numerator and Denominator Data
Direct Age Standardization
Disparities
Endemic
A disease or condition that is
present in a community at all times but at a relatively low level.
Epidemic
The occurrence of more cases of a disease
than would be expected in a community or region during a given time period.
Epidemiology
Epidemiology is the study of
how often disease occurs in different groups of people and why. In public
health, epidemiology is also concerned with development of an appropriate
response to disease in a population.
Ethnicity
Ethnicity is a term that refers to social groups with a shared history, sense
of identity, geography and cultural roots which may occur despite racial differences.
Ethnicity shapes a group's culture - food, language, music, and customs. We all have
an ethnicity, but the term is often used only in reference to persons of Hispanic or Latino
ethnicity versus those of non-Hispanic/Latino ethnicity.
See also
Race.
[more on race and ethnicity measurement and coding...]
Evaluation
Evaluation refers to a set of tools or procedures to demonstrate
or measure progress in achieving specific outcomes, goals, and objectives. Evaluation involves the systematic
collection, analysis, and reporting of information to assist in planning and decision-making. Program-level
evaluations measure benefits for specific populations served. Community-level evaluations measure benefits
for community residents resulting from changes in community systems, organizations, neighborhoods, or networks.
Evidence-based
Evidence-based public health
practice is the careful, intentional and sensible use of current best
scientific evidence in making decisions about the choice and application
of public health interventions.
[more on evidence-based public health practice...]
Evidence-based Community Health
Community programs, strategies, or interventions
that have been shown through research or evaluation to have been effective in achieving desired
health outcomes with similar populations or communities.
See also
Evidence-based.
Experiment
Fetal Mortality Rate
Fetal deaths of 16 or more weeks gestation per 1,000 deliveries. The number of deliveries consists of live births plus fetal deaths = (Total Fetal Deaths / (Total Live Births + Total Fetal Deaths)) x 1,000.
FIPS Codes
Fundamentals of Public Health
General Fertility Rate
The general fertility rate is the number of live births per 1,000 females of childbearing age between the ages of 15-44 years. (The age range can differ, depending on the source, so it is important to note what age range is being used especially when comparing to data from other sources). Note: See also "Fertility Rate," the number of live births per all women in the population.
See also
Age-specific Birth Rate,
Crude Birth Rate and
Total Fertility Rate.
Geocode
Geocoding is a process that assigns each data record x and y coordinates that
correspond (ultimately) to the Earth's latitude and longitude. The geo-coordinates
may then be used to locate the record on a map or in another geography (e.g., a county
or census tract).
[more on Geocoding...]
Gestational Age
Gestational Age is the period of time a baby is carried in the uterus or
the duration of the pregnancy, measured from the first day of the last menstrual
period. Full-term gestation is considered between 37 and 42 weeks. Average Gestational age for New Mexico births
can be calculated using the
Births Custom Query section of the NM-IBIS Website.
Goal
A goal is a statement used in a planning process that describes
a future desired state. Goals provide programmatic direction. Goals focus
on ends rather than means.
See also
Objective and
S.M.A.R.T. Objectives.
Gravidity
Gravidity refers to the number of times a woman has been pregnant, regardless
of whether a pregnancy resulted in a live birth. For instance, a woman who was pregnant
once and miscarried would be considered, "gravida 1."
See also
Parity.
Health Disparities
Differences in health status among distinct populations,
such as racial and ethnic groups, rural vs. urban, different income groups, and populations of specific
geographic areas. Health disparities generally refer to differences in health that are closely linked
with social or economic disadvantage. Health disparities negatively affect groups of people who have
systematically experienced greater social or economic obstacles to health. These obstacles stem from
characteristics historically linked to discrimination or exclusion such as race or ethnicity, religion,
socioeconomic status, gender, mental health, sexual orientation, or geographic location. Other characteristics
include cognitive, sensory, or physical disability. (Adapted from Healthy People 2020, U.S. Dept. of
Health and human Services)
Health Regions, New Mexico
HealthyPeople2020
Healthy People 2010 is an initiative
of the U.S. Public Health Service that established over 400 health objectives
for the Nation through a public process. The initiative also defined quantifiable
measures. The objectives are to be achieved by the year 2010. They are typically
used by public health organizations and programs to track progress and improve
population health status.
HealthyPeople2020 Website.
ICD Codes
ICD Stands for International Classification of Diseases. It is a coding system maintained by the World Health Organization and the U.S. National Center for Health Statistics used to classify causes of death on death certificates and diagnoses, injury causes, and medical procedures for hospital and emergency department visits. These codes are updated every decade or so to account for advances in medical technology. The U.S. is currently using the 10th revision (ICD-10) to code causes of death. The 9th revision (ICD-9) is still in use for hospital and emergency department visits until October of 2015.
[more on ICD codes...]
ICD-O Codes
Specialized ICD codes, called ICD-Oncology, or ICD-O, are used to
classify cancer diagnoses by site and type (e.g., lung, breast, leukemia,
lymphoma).
For more on the oncology ICD codes, see the
SEER (Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results cancer registry) Website.
Incidence
Incidence is the number of new cases
(e.g., of disease) in a given period of time.
See also
Prevalence.
Index Population
Indicator
A health indicator is a numeric measure that depicts
population health or health system status on a core public health construct.
Indirect Age Standardization
Infant Mortality Rate
Infant mortality is defined as the death of an infant under one year
of age. The Infant Mortality Rate is most often calculated as infant deaths in a given year per 1,000 live
births in the same year (death period method). The rate may also be calculated as death of infants
born in a given year per 1,000 infants born in that year (birth cohort method).
See also
Neonatal Mortality
Rate, and
Postneonatal Mortality Rate.
Intercensal
Occurring between decennial (every ten year) censuses. E.g., 2000-2010 intercensal population estimates
are estimates that were derived for years 2000-2010, taking into account the 2010 decennial census population estimates.
See also
Postcensal.
Interpregnancy Interval
The interpregnancy interval is the time (in months) between the completion of one pregnancy resulting in a live born infant and conception of the next pregnancy.
Interpregnancy Interval for New Mexico births
can be calculated using the
Births Custom Query section of the NM-IBIS Website.
Investigation
Surveillance is the systematic collection, analysis,
interpretation, and dissemination of health data on an ongoing basis. Surveillance is conducted
to identify potential public health threats, and to gain knowledge of the pattern of disease
occurrence and risk in a community.
See also
Surveillance.
Jenks Natural Breaks
The Jenks Natural Breaks method, also referred to as the Jenks Optimization method, is a
data-classification method designed identifies breaks in the ordered distribution of values that
minimizes the variance within classes and maximizes the variance between classes. The method was
developed with the intention of dividing data into relatively few data classes (seven or fewer)
for mapping purposes.
[more on NM-IBIS Choropleth Maps...]
Kotelchuck Index
The Kotelchuck Index, also called the Adequacy of Prenatal Care
Utilization (APNCU) Index, uses two crucial elements obtained from birth
certificate data - when prenatal care began (initiation) and the number of
prenatal visits from when prenatal care began until delivery (received services).
The Kotelchuck index classifies the adequacy of initiation as Inadequate (received
fewer than 50% of expected visits), Intermediate (50%-79%), Adequate (80%-109%), or
Adequate Plus (110% of visits or more).
[more on the Kotelchuck Index...]
Kessner Index
The traditional measure of prenatal care used in New Mexico has
been a modified Kessner index. Levels of prenatal care are defined by
using a combination of factors: the month prenatal care began and the
number of prenatal visits made. A low level of care is defined as care
that begins in the third trimester with less than five or no prenatal
care visits. A high level of care is defined as care that began during
the first trimester (first three months) of pregnancy with nine or more
prenatal care visits occurring during that period. Mid level care is
defined as care that began during the first trimester with 5-8 prenatal
visits, or care beginning in the fourth to sixth month of pregnancy with
5 or more visits.
Large for Gestational Age
Large for gestational age (LGA) is a term used to describe a baby who is
larger than usual for the number of weeks of pregnancy. LGA babies usually have
birthweights above the 90th percentile for babies of the same gestational age.
This means that they weigh more than 90 percent of all other babies of the same
gestational age. See also
Gestational Age.
Leading Causes of Death
Life Expectancy
Life expectancy is the average expected number of years of life remaining
from a given age, in a given population, according to the current mortality
experience (age-specific death rates) of persons in the same population.
Life expectancy is calculated from a table called a "Life Table." It is most
often expressed as the life expectancy from birth, but is also commonly
expressed as life expectancy from age 65.
[more on Life Expectancy...]
Logic Model
A logic model is a graphic representation or framework for
understanding a program or set of activities. A logic model provides a picture of what goes into a
program, what the program does, and what the results are. Logic models are useful tools for both
planning and evaluation.
See also
Evaluation.
M.A.P.P.
Mobilizing for Action through Planning and Partnerships (MAPP) is a community-driven
strategic planning process for improving community health. Facilitated by public health
leaders, this framework helps communities apply strategic thinking to prioritize public
health issues and identify resources to address them. MAPP is not an agency-focused
assessment process; rather, it is an interactive process that can improve the efficiency,
effectiveness, and ultimately the performance of local public health systems.
(Definition downloaded from
www.naccho.org/topics/infrastructure/mapp on 8/8/2012).
M.M.W.R.
The Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) is a weekly report of
state-based notifiable disease surveillance and other timely events of
interest prepared and distributed by the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC).
MMWR Website
M.M.W.R. Week
The MMWR week is the week of the epidemiologic
year for which the National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System (NNDSS) disease
report is assigned for the purposes of MMWR disease incidence reporting and publishing.
When a notifiable disease case is reported to the state or local health department, it
is assigned (coded) to an MMWR Week.
Calendar Dates for MMWR Weeks (2006-2025)
Maps
Maternal Mortality Rate
Number of deaths from complications
of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium per 100,000 live births = (Total
Maternal Deaths / Total Live Births) x 100,000.
Mean
The mean is a measure of central tendency, also called an "average." The mean
is calculated by summing the values in a set and then dividing by the number of
values that are in the set. For instance, John is 30 and Mary is 38. Their mean age is
(30+38)/2, or 68/2, or 34.
Median
The median is a measure of central tendency. It is the 50th percentile, or the
value for which 50% of the scores are lower and 50% of the scores are higher. The median
is not sensitive to extreme values, making it a better choice than the mean as a measure
of central tendency for variables with extreme values. For instance, household income
has a fixed "floor" value of zero, but on the other end, there are typically a small number
of extremely large values. Those extreme values will drive up the calculated value of the
average or mean.
Mode
The mode is a measure of central tendency. It is the score that occurs
with the greatest frequency. In other words, the most common score.
Morbidity
Morbidity is another term for
illness. Morbidities are not deaths, and occur among the population of
living persons. Examples of morbidities include Alzheimer's disease, diabetes,
and traumatic brain injury. Incidence and Prevalence
are measures often used to describe the extent of morbidity in a population.
Mortality
Mortality is another term for
death. A mortality rate is the number of deaths due to a disease divided by
the number of persons in the population.
N.A.C.C.H.O.
The National Association of County and City Health Officials (NACCHO). NACCHO's members
are the 2700 local health departments across the United States. NACCHO's mission
is to be a leader, partner, catalyst, and voice for local health departments
to ensure the conditions that promote health and equity, combat disease, and improve
the quality and length of all lives.
NACCHO Website. See also
A.S.T.H.O..
N.C.H.S. Leading Causes
In order to provide a ranking standard the NCHS (National Center for Health
Statistics) prepared a list of 113 selected causes of death that are reported on the death
certificate. The NCHS 50 leading causes of death are taken from the list of 113. Other classification schemes are used,
such as the STIPDA external causes of injury and the ICD-O causes of cancer deaths.
For more
information about the NCHS rankings, see the
Cause of Death Ranking Vital Statistics Report. Leading causes of death for
New Mexico can be calculated using the
Mortality Custom Query section of the NM-IBIS Website.
[list of NCHS leading causes...]
Neonatal Mortality Rate
Numerator
The numerator is the dividend in division (for instance, where 12/3=4,
the number 3 is known as the divisor, 12 is the dividend and 4 is the quotient). In public health, the numerator
for a disease rate is the number of cases of, or persons with a health condition of interest. For instance,
for 23 deaths in a population of 15,000, the death rate would be 23/15,000, or 0.001533, or 153.3 per 100,000 population.
In that example, 23 is referred to as the numerator.
See also,
NMDOH Principles for Updating Numerator and Denominator Data.
Objective
An objective is a statement of an action that
leads to achievement of a goal. Objectives should be specific, measurable, and
time-limited. Objectives tell how to meet a goal. They focus on the means rather
than the end.
See also
Goal and
S.M.A.R.T. Objectives.
Occurrent Events
Occurrent events are those that occurred in a particular geographic area. For example,
2007 New Mexico occurrent births is the number of births that occurred in New
Mexico during 2007 (regardless of the mother's permanent residence). Reporting of vital
statistics by residence is considered the standard or default for general data dissemination
since it provides health status information for residents of a particular geographic
area.
See also
Resident Events.
Outcomes
Outcomes are planned results, benefits, or changes that occur as a
result of interventions, objectives, strategies, or activities. Outcomes may be short-term, intermediate,
or long-term. Outcomes may be population-based, program-based, or community-based.
See also
Evaluation, and
Logic Model.
Pandemic
A pandemic occurs when an epidemic becomes very
widespread and affects a whole region, a continent, or
the entire world.
See also
Epidemic.
Parity
Parity is the number of previous live-born infants a woman has delivered. For instance,
woman who has not previously given birth is considered "nulliparous," with parity equal to 0.
See also
Gravidity.
Policy
A policy is typically described as a principle or
rule to guide decisions and achieve intended outcome(s). Policies can be written or verbal,
specific or general, and can refer to actions of governmental entities, businesses, schools,
institutions, or other organized bodies.
See also
Advocacy.
Population-Based
Pertaining to a general population defined by geopolitical boundaries. This population is also the denominator and/or the sampling frame. It is not based on a subset of the population, such as those enrolled in a specific program.
Population Denominators
Positive Youth Development
Positive youth development (PYD) is a comprehensive framework
outlining the assets and supports that young people need in order to be successful. PYD emphasizes the
importance of focusing on youths' strengths instead of their risk factors to ensure that all youth grow
up to become contributing adults. Positive youth development programs generally address diverse populations
of young people, instead of focusing solely on at-risk youth (adapted from National Conference of State
Legislatures).
Postcensal
Occurring after a decennial (every ten year) census, and prior to the following decennial census.
E.g., 2001-2009 postcensal population estimates are estimates that were derived for years 2001-2009, without
the benefit of the 2010 decennial census population estimates.
See also
Intercensal.
Postneonatal Mortality Rate
Prenatal Care
Prenatal care refers to healthcare visits prior to and during pregnancy. Prenatal care is recommended to
detect and prevent any potential problems and ensure the healthiest possible delivery and birth.
Doctors recommend that mothers-to-be see their health care provider before the 13th week of pregnancy and to go back for at least 13 visits before birth. (Go before week 13 and get 13 visits.)
Preterm Birth
A Preterm birth is a birth that occurs before the 37th week of gestation. Percentage of New Mexico births that were
pre-term can be calculated using the
Births Custom Query section of the NM-IBIS Website. See also
Gestational Age.
Prevention (primary, secondary, tertiary)
A framework for categorizing
prevention programs based on the stage of the natural history of a disease or injury:
Primary prevention -- An intervention implemented before there is evidence of a
disease or injury. This strategy can reduce or eliminate causative risk factors (risk
reduction). Secondary prevention -- An intervention implemented after a disease has begun,
but before it is symptomatic (screening and treatment). Tertiary prevention -- An
intervention implemented after a disease or injury is established. This strategy can
prevent sequelae (further disability or disease).
Prevalence
Prevalence is the number of existing cases
(e.g., of a disease or risk factor) in a given period of time.
See also
Incidence.
Proportion
A proportion is an expression of the relationship of the magnitude
of a part to the whole, and is typically expressed as a decimal fraction.
For instance, the proportion ".25" indicates that the part is 25%, or one
quarter, the magnitude of the whole. See also
Ratio.
Public Health, Fundamentals of
Public health is "the science and art of preventing disease,
prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society,
organizations, public and private, communities and individuals" (1920, C.E.A. Winslow). Fundamentals
of Public Health is a brief (two-day) course for community representatives that includes sections on the
history of public health, population-based approaches to health, basic epidemiology, community health
assessment, community health planning, and health disparities/social determinants of health.
Q.A.L.Y.
Race
Race is defined as a human population considered distinct based on physical
characteristics. It is important to note, however, that race is predominantly a social construct, and
that genetic science has determined that only 2 percent of our genes are ultimately responsible
for the visible differences such as skin color.
See also
Ethnicity.
[more on race and ethnicity measurement and coding...]
Race to the Top
Rate
A rate is a special instance of a ratio in which the quantity in the numerator is also included
in the denominator. In public health, the numerator is typically the number of people among whom an event
occurred during a certain period of time, and the denominator is the total number of people
in the population at risk for the same period of time. Rates are typically multiplied by some
factor of ten so that the result is a whole number, for instance, "671 deaths per 100,000 population."
[more on health event rates...]
Ratio
A ratio is a comparison between two numbers which are typically separated
by a colon (:). One example is the ratio of the width to the height of a TV
monitor (4:3) (read as, "four to three"). A ratio may also be expressed as a
fraction, such as 4/3. See also
Rate.
Regions
Relative Risk
The ratio of the risk of disease in exposed individuals to the risk of disease
in non-exposed individuals. Relative Risk = Risk in exposed ÷ Risk in non-exposed
Relative Standard Error (RSE)
Relative Standard Error, (RSE) is a
measure of the statistical stability of an estimate. It is calculated as the ratio
of the standard error to the point estimate (e.g. rate, average), and is often
expressed as a percentage. An estimate with an RSE greater than 0.30 (30%) is
generally considered unstable, and an estimate with an RSE greater than 0.50
should not be used to infer population risk. The Relative Standard Error is also
known as the Coefficient of Variation.
[more on reliability...]
Reliability
Reliability is a property of a measurement that refers to its stability, or the degree to
which measurements of identical phenomena yield identical results. In public health, we often
use measures such as death rates or birth outcomes to indicate the true underlying risk of
illness or disability in a population. Often such measures, when observed in
small populations, are said to yield "unreliable results" because the
observations tend to very considerably over repeated observations, such as from year to
year. That fluctuation makes them an unreliable measure, and a poor indication of the true
underlying population risk.
[more on reliability...]
Resident Events
Resident events are those that occurred to residents of a particular geographic area.
For example, 2007 New Mexico resident births is the number of births that occurred to New
Mexico resident mothers during 2008 (regardless of where they occurred). Reporting of vital
statistics by residence is considered the standard or default for general data dissemination
since it provides health status information for residents of a particular geographic
area.
See also
Occurrent Events.
Resiliency Factor
A resiliency factor is a personal, social or environmental characteristic that is associated with
a decreased risk of disease, infection or injury.
Risk Factor
A risk factor is a personal, social or environmental characteristic that is associated with
an increased risk of disease, infection or injury.
S.M.A.R.T. Objectives
"SMART" is an acronym for objectives that are
Specific (What is the specific task?),
Measurable (What are the standards or parameters?),
Achievable (Is the task feasible?),
Realistic (Are sufficient resources available?), and
Time-Bound (What are the start and end dates?).
For more information, visit the
CDC Healthy Youth Website.
See also
Objectives and
Goals.
S.O.A.P.
SOAP is an acronym used in clinical medicine that stands for "Subjective, Objective, Assessment
and Plan." Subjective information from the patient and Objective measurements from tests are the
inputs to the clinical diagnosis, the clinician then Assesses the information to arrive at a diagnosis,
and then establishes a treatment Plan. The analogy is also useful when applied to community health
assessment.
[more on the SOAP model...]
S.T.I.P.D.A.
STIPDA stands for "State and Territorial Injury Program Directors
Association." In 2007, STIPDA published consensus recommendations for
coding external cause of injury on the death certificates and hospital
discharge records.
See the
STIPDA Consensus Recommendations.
Sentinel Site
Just as a sentinel is a person employed to keep watch for some anticipated event, sentinel
public health sites are clinicians, hospitals or clinics that have agreed to watch for cases
of a given disease or event and report them to the public health department. Sentinel sites
are commonly used in surveillance of influenza-like illness (ILI) to track incidence of ILI
in the community.
Small for Gestational Age
Small for gestational age (SGA) is a term used to describe a baby who is
smaller than usual for the number of weeks of pregnancy. SGA babies usually have
birthweights below the 10th percentile for babies of the same gestational age.
This means that they are smaller than 90 percent of all other babies of the same
gestational age. See also
Gestational Age.
Small Areas, New Mexico
New Mexico Small Areas are 108 geographic areas across the state with population sizes that are just
large enough to calculate rates for selected health events (e.g., diabetes deaths, asthma hospitalization,
etc.). New Mexico small areas were based on population size, not land area. Most (95%) of the New Mexico
small areas range in population size from 9,000 to 30,000 persons. Some counties have multiple small areas
(Bernalillo County has 34 small areas within its boundaries). In other cases, entire counties (e.g.,
Harding, Quay and De Baca Counties) were combined to create a single small area.
[For reference maps and more on the New Mexico Small Areas...]
Small Numbers
"Small numbers" is a term that is used to denote a population or a survey sample that is relatively
small, yielding imprecise estimates for the health event of interest. "Small" is defined differently
for different purposes, but in general, populations that yield 20 or fewer health events in the
specific time period are generally considered small for most purposes. The precision of an estimate
may be indicated by the
confidence interval for the estimate. As
the population size decreases, the confidence interval widens, indicating less precision, or less
"confidence" with regard to how well the estimate reflects the true underlying risk in that population.
A small and identifiable denominator (e.g., teen girls in Harding County) may also provide opportunities
for identification of individuals represented in a dataset. To avoid invasions of individual privacy, the
DOH has a "
Small Numbers Reporting Rule."
Social Determinants of Health
The social determinants of health are the circumstances in which
people are born, grow up, live, work, and age, as well as the systems put in place to deal with illness.
Social determinants of health are the complex, integrated, and overlapping social structures and economic
systems that are responsible for most health inequities. These social structures and economic systems
include the social environment, physical environment, health services, and structural and societal factors.
Social determinants of health are shaped by the distribution of money, power, and resources throughout local
communities, nations, and the world. (Adapted from the World Health Organization)
See also
Health Disparities.
Social Marketing
Social marketing is the systematic application of marketing
principles and practices, along with other concepts and techniques, to achieve specific behavioral
goals for a social good. Social marketing is often applied as part of health promotion campaigns
designed to change behaviors, such as reducing smoking, curbing driving while intoxicated, or increasing
levels of physical activity.
Stability
Standardized Mortality Ratio (SMR)
Standardized Mortality Ratio (SMR) is a ratio between the observed number
of deaths in an study population and the number of deaths that would be expected, based on
the age- and sex-specific rates in a standard population and the age and sex
distribution of the study population. If the ratio of observed:expected deaths is
greater than 1.0, there is said to be "excess deaths" in the study population.
See also
Ratio.
[more on the SMR...]
Statistic
A statistic is a number that summarizes data. A descriptive statistic summarizes data in
a limited or bounded dataset. Examples include the average age of students in a class and the
percentage of employees who purchased dependent health coverage. An inferential statistic
summarizes data in a sample drawn from a larger population, of which the sample is intended
to be representative. Statistics calculated from the sample are used to make inferences about
the population, and are typically accompanied by a
confidence
interval, used to suggest the precision of the statistic. Examples include the percentage
of youth in a survey who smoked cigarettes, or the average body mass index among sampled persons.
Strategy
A strategy is an overall approach or direction
for an initiative: a set of objectives which, taken together, are likely to achieve a
desired outcome. Evidence-based strategies are approaches which have been shown through
research, evaluation, or experience to be likely to achieve the desired results. Promising
strategies are those which are currently being tested or evaluated, with early indications
that they are likely to be successful in achieving the desired results.
See also
Evidence-based.
Study Population
The term "study population" is used to refer to the population of interest,
in contrast to the "standard population" which is used to provide a basis for
age standardization of rates.
Surveillance
Surveillance is the systematic collection, analysis,
interpretation, and dissemination of health data on an ongoing basis. Surveillance is conducted
to identify potential public health threats, and to gain knowledge of the pattern of disease
occurrence and risk in a community.
See also
Investigation.
Test of Proportions
The Test of Proportions is a statistical test used to compare [[ibis.doh.nm.gov/resource/Glossary.html#R rates]] (such as a percentage
or a death rate) between two independent populations (such as counties
or two age groups). By "independent" we mean there is no overlap in the members
of the two groups. For instance, this test would be too considered conservative to compare
the same county at two different points in time. [more on the Test of Proportions...]
Total Fertility Rate
The total fertility rate is the sum of the age-specific birth rates of women in five-year age groups multiplied by five. This rate estimates the number of children a cohort of 1,000 women would bear if they all went through their childbearing years exposed to the same age-specific birth rates in effect for a particular time.
See also
Age-specific
Birth Rate,Crude Birth Rate,General Fertility Rate, and
Total Fertility Rate.
Trend
A trend is a view of multiple years of data so you can see how rates
change over time. A trend is often shown as a simple line graph so that the trend is easily
visible. Due to the changing age distribution of the population (i.e., the "aging" of the population
over time) it is useful to use
age-adjusted rates to compare rates
over several years. The term, "secular trend" is also used to refer to trends over time.
True Experiment
A true experiment has the following characteristics.
There must be a study group and a control group. Study participants must be randomly
assigned to the study and control groups. There must be an experimenter-manipulated independent
variable to which study group is exposed. Without a true experiment, it is very difficult to
establish a causal relationship.
Turn-the-Curve
To see New Mexico's 10 Turn-the-Curve health indicators, visit the NM-IBIS
Turn the Curve page.
Underlying Cause of Death
Underlying cause of death is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO)
as the disease or injury that initiated the train of events leading directly
to death, or the circumstances of the accident or violence which produced the
fatal injury.
Urban/Rural
New Mexico Department of Health has adopted the
2013 NCHS classification of New Mexico counties into four urban/rural groups. In the NCHS classification scheme, New
Mexico's counties have been classified into the NCHS categories Medium Metro, Small Metro, Micropolitan and Noncore, which
we have renamed to Metropolitan, Small Metropolitan, Mixed Urban/Rural and Rural, respectively, for use in New Mexico. For
a map showing New Mexico's urban/rural county designations, visit the New Mexico Maps section on the
Community Health Assessment Resources page.
Validity
Validity is a property of a measurement that refers to its accuracy, or the degree to
which observations reflect the true value of a phenomenon. In public health, we are
lucky because the validity of most of our measures is really quite good. "Cause of death"
on death certificates is certified by a physician. Survey measures have been tested to
maximize validity. Birthweight is measured and reported at the birth hospital. There are
some measures that we question, for instance self-reported body weight, but on the whole,
the measures we use have a high degree of validity.
[more on validity...]Weighted Average
The weighted average, or weighted mean is an average in which the data elements have been
differentially weighted. Data elements with a high weight contribute more to the weighted
average than do elements with a low weight. If all data components in the calculation have
the same weight, it is called the arithmetic mean. In the case of
age-adjusted rates for health events, a weighted mean is used
to adjust, or age-standardize, health event rates for two or more populations with different
age compositions.
Y.P.L.L.
YPLL stands for "Years of Potential Life Lost," and is a measure of premature mortality due to one or more conditions. In New Mexico IBIS, it is calculated as age 75 minus the age at death.
See also
D.A.L.Y.,
Q.A.L.Y. ZCTA
ZCTAs are generalized area representations of U.S. Postal Service (USPS) ZIP code service areas.
Simply put, each one is built by aggregating the Census 2000 blocks, whose addresses use a given
ZIP code, into a ZCTA which gets that ZIP code assigned as its ZCTA code. They represent the
majority USPS five-digit ZIP code found in a given area. For those areas where it is difficult
to determine the prevailing five-digit ZIP code, the higher-level three-digit ZIP code is used
for the ZCTA code. For further information, go to
the U.S. Census Bureau page on ZIP Code Tabulation Areas.
If you have ideas for additional content or improvements to this content, please
do not hesitate to contact the
NMDOH Community Health Assessment Program.
